Present Simple Affirmative
He/She/It
We/You/They
am
is
are
called / given
Negative
I
He/She/It
We/You/They
am
is
are
not called / given
Questions
Am
Is
Are
called / given?
I
he/she/it
we/you/they
Past Simple
Affirmative
I/He/She/It
We/You/They
was
were called / given
Negative
I/He/She/It
We/You/They
wasn’t
weren’t called / given
Questions
Was
Were
called / given?
I/he/she/it
we/you/they
The person who causes or carries out the action is
called an agent and is preceded by the preposition by.
We usually omit the agent when the action interests
us more than the agent, when we don’t know the
agent or when it is easy to figure out who the agent is.
My bag was stolen!
(by someone who we do not know)
BMW cars are made in Germany.
(by factory workers)
NOTE
Had better
We use had better + bare infinitive to give strong advice.
It often expresses threat or warning and it’s stronger than
should. It refers to the present or future, not the past. Its
negative form is had better not. In spoken English the short
form is commonly used (I’d better, you’d better, etc.).
You’d better ask a doctor about it.
Subject Verb Object
Mark wrote a letter.
A letter was written by Mark.
Passive Voice
Active Voice
Subject Verb Agent
NOTE Irregular verbs on page 135.
We use Conditional Sentences Type 1 for something which
is possible to happen in the present or future.
Conditional Sentences Type 1
Conditional Sentences consist of the if-clause and the main
clause.
May / Might / Could
The verbs may, might and could
• are followed by the base form of the verb.
• are the same in all persons in the singular and plural.
• do not form the questions and negative forms with do.
• express possibility in the present/future.
We may / might / could go to the park next week.
Module 6
We use may not/might not to express lack of
possibility in the present or future.
Henry may not/might not be able to join us.
NOTE
132
Module 7
Negative Questions
Negative questions are formed with:
Auxiliary Verb + n’t (= short form of not) + Subject + Main Verb.
We use negative questions:
• to express surprise.
Haven’t you been to the city centre before?
• when we expect the listener to agree with us.
Don’t you want to come to the museum with us?
Present Perfect Progressive
Affirmative
I
He/She/It
We/You/They
have been working
has been working
have been working
Negative
I
He/She/It
We/You/They
haven’t been working
hasn’t been working
haven’t been working
Questions
Have
Has
Have
been working?
I
he/she/it
we/you/they
We use the Present Perfect Progressive for:
• a repeated action or situation which started in the past and
continues up to the present.
They have been using the Internet for more than two
hours now.
• an action which was happening over a period of time in the
past and may have finished, but its results are obvious in the
present.
He’s very tired. He’s been studying all night.
Question Tags
Question tags are short questions at the end of statements.
We use them:
• when we are not sure about something.
• when we want the other person to agree with us.
We form question tags with the auxiliary or modal verb of
the sentence and a personal pronoun in the same person as
the subject.
You couldn't see him, could you?
Tom believed him, didn't he?
• When the statement is affirmative, we use a negative
question tag.
The boys are at school, aren’t they?
• When the statement is negative, we use a positive question tag.
She hasn't seen the doctor yet, has she?
If I find the book, I’ll buy it for you.
If you go to the gym early, you might see him there.
If you see him, ask him about the festival.
When is used to refer to the time something is going to
happen, while if refers to the possibility of something
happening.
I’ll tell him when I see him. (= I will definitely see him.)
I’ll tell him if I see him. (= I may not see him.)
If vs When
So / Neither / Too / Either
• We use so + affirmative auxiliary verb + subject or
subject + affirmative auxiliary verb + too when we
agree with an affirmative statement, but we don’t
want to repeat it.
A: I play football. A: Rob has read this book.
B: So do I. / I do too. B: So have I. / I have too.
• We use neither + affirmative auxiliary verb + subject or
subject + negative auxiliary verb + either when we agree
with a negative statement, but we don’t want to repeat it.
A: Paul can’t swim. A: Ian won’t go to school today.
B: Neither can I. / B: Neither will I. / I won’t either.
I can’t either.
The Present Perfect Progressive emphasises the duration
of an action, while the Present Perfect Simple emphasises
the result of an action.
The secretary has been typing letters since 10:30.
The secretary has typed eight letters since 10:30.
Present Perfect Progressive vs
Present Perfect Simple
Be careful with the following question tags:
I am a very good teacher, aren’t I?
Let’s go to the lecture, shall we?
Open that door, will you?
NOTE
if-clause main clause
if + Present Simple
• Future will
• Modal Verbs (may, might,
can, must, should)
• Imperative
TIME EXPRESSIONS
for, since, how long, all day/week, etc.
When the if- clause comes before the main clause,
the two clauses are separated by a comma.
NOTE
To express agreement
• We use subject + affirmative auxiliary verb when we
disagree with a negative statement, but we don’t want to
repeat it.
A: I can’t play football.
B: I can.
• We use subject + negative auxiliary verb when we
disagree with an affirmative statement, but we don’t
want to repeat it.
A: I’ve been to Madrid twice.
B: I haven’t.
To express disagreement
133
SUBJECT OBJECT
Exclamatory Sentences
Formation
• how/so + adjective/adverb
• what/such + (a/an) + (adjective) + noun
We use Exclamatory Sentences to give emphasis to the
meaning of the adjective/adverb or noun.
How wonderful!
What a beautiful day!
It was so funny!
He’s such an unusual man!
We use Clauses of Result to express the result of an
action or a conclusion:
• so + adjective/adverb + (that)
He was so bored (that) he left before the end of the lecture.
• such + (a/an) + (adjective) + noun + (that)
It was such a hot day that we all went swimming.
Clauses of Result
We use reflexive pronouns:
• as objects of verbs when the subject and the object
of the verb are the same.
I bought myself an expensive pair of shoes.
• as objects of prepositions when the object of the
preposition is the same as the subject of the verb.
He never talks about himself.
Reflexive Pronouns
I
you
he
she
it
we
you
they
me
you
him
her
it
us
you
them
myself
yourself
himself
herself
itself
ourselves
yourselves
themselves
REFLEXIVE
PRONOUNS
PERSONAL PRONOUNS
We use by + reflexive pronoun to show that
someone does something alone, without any help
from anyone else.
I always pack my suitcases by myself.
NOTE
We use the Past Perfect Simple for an action which took
place before a specific point in time or another action in the
past. The second action is in the Past Simple.
Questions
Had worked/written?
I
he/she/it
we/you/they
He had already called me before he left the house.
She had finished her homework by 8 o’clock.
The train had left by the time we arrived at the station.
• We use say when there is no indirect object.
‘I’ll be there,’ he said.
He said that he would be there.
• We use tell when there is an indirect object.
‘I’ll call you, Mark,’ he said.
He told Mark he would call him.
NOTE
Reported Speech (Statements)
In Direct Speech, we repeat the exact words that
someone said. We usually use the verb say and the words
of the speaker are put in quotation marks.
Ian said, ‘Tony is on the phone.’
In Reported Speech, we report the meaning of what
someone said, without using their exact words. We use a
reporting verb, usually say or tell, followed by that
(which can be omitted) and the reported statement.
Ian said that Tony was on the phone.
• When we change a sentence from Direct to Reported
Speech, pronouns and possessive adjectives change
according to the meaning of the sentence.
‘You have to take your son to the doctor,’ said David.
David said that I had to take my son to the doctor.
• We say so + much/many, but such + a lot of.
• That can be omitted, especially in spoken English.
NOTE
NOTE Irregular verbs on page 135.
TIME EXPRESSIONS
already, ever, never, just, by, before, after, when,
by the time
He/She/It
We/You/They
am
is
are
called / given
Negative
I
He/She/It
We/You/They
am
is
are
not called / given
Questions
Am
Is
Are
called / given?
I
he/she/it
we/you/they
Past Simple
Affirmative
I/He/She/It
We/You/They
was
were called / given
Negative
I/He/She/It
We/You/They
wasn’t
weren’t called / given
Questions
Was
Were
called / given?
I/he/she/it
we/you/they
The person who causes or carries out the action is
called an agent and is preceded by the preposition by.
We usually omit the agent when the action interests
us more than the agent, when we don’t know the
agent or when it is easy to figure out who the agent is.
My bag was stolen!
(by someone who we do not know)
BMW cars are made in Germany.
(by factory workers)
NOTE
Had better
We use had better + bare infinitive to give strong advice.
It often expresses threat or warning and it’s stronger than
should. It refers to the present or future, not the past. Its
negative form is had better not. In spoken English the short
form is commonly used (I’d better, you’d better, etc.).
You’d better ask a doctor about it.
Subject Verb Object
Mark wrote a letter.
A letter was written by Mark.
Passive Voice
Active Voice
Subject Verb Agent
NOTE Irregular verbs on page 135.
We use Conditional Sentences Type 1 for something which
is possible to happen in the present or future.
Conditional Sentences Type 1
Conditional Sentences consist of the if-clause and the main
clause.
May / Might / Could
The verbs may, might and could
• are followed by the base form of the verb.
• are the same in all persons in the singular and plural.
• do not form the questions and negative forms with do.
• express possibility in the present/future.
We may / might / could go to the park next week.
Module 6
We use may not/might not to express lack of
possibility in the present or future.
Henry may not/might not be able to join us.
NOTE
132
Module 7
Negative Questions
Negative questions are formed with:
Auxiliary Verb + n’t (= short form of not) + Subject + Main Verb.
We use negative questions:
• to express surprise.
Haven’t you been to the city centre before?
• when we expect the listener to agree with us.
Don’t you want to come to the museum with us?
Present Perfect Progressive
Affirmative
I
He/She/It
We/You/They
have been working
has been working
have been working
Negative
I
He/She/It
We/You/They
haven’t been working
hasn’t been working
haven’t been working
Questions
Have
Has
Have
been working?
I
he/she/it
we/you/they
We use the Present Perfect Progressive for:
• a repeated action or situation which started in the past and
continues up to the present.
They have been using the Internet for more than two
hours now.
• an action which was happening over a period of time in the
past and may have finished, but its results are obvious in the
present.
He’s very tired. He’s been studying all night.
Question Tags
Question tags are short questions at the end of statements.
We use them:
• when we are not sure about something.
• when we want the other person to agree with us.
We form question tags with the auxiliary or modal verb of
the sentence and a personal pronoun in the same person as
the subject.
You couldn't see him, could you?
Tom believed him, didn't he?
• When the statement is affirmative, we use a negative
question tag.
The boys are at school, aren’t they?
• When the statement is negative, we use a positive question tag.
She hasn't seen the doctor yet, has she?
If I find the book, I’ll buy it for you.
If you go to the gym early, you might see him there.
If you see him, ask him about the festival.
When is used to refer to the time something is going to
happen, while if refers to the possibility of something
happening.
I’ll tell him when I see him. (= I will definitely see him.)
I’ll tell him if I see him. (= I may not see him.)
If vs When
So / Neither / Too / Either
• We use so + affirmative auxiliary verb + subject or
subject + affirmative auxiliary verb + too when we
agree with an affirmative statement, but we don’t
want to repeat it.
A: I play football. A: Rob has read this book.
B: So do I. / I do too. B: So have I. / I have too.
• We use neither + affirmative auxiliary verb + subject or
subject + negative auxiliary verb + either when we agree
with a negative statement, but we don’t want to repeat it.
A: Paul can’t swim. A: Ian won’t go to school today.
B: Neither can I. / B: Neither will I. / I won’t either.
I can’t either.
The Present Perfect Progressive emphasises the duration
of an action, while the Present Perfect Simple emphasises
the result of an action.
The secretary has been typing letters since 10:30.
The secretary has typed eight letters since 10:30.
Present Perfect Progressive vs
Present Perfect Simple
Be careful with the following question tags:
I am a very good teacher, aren’t I?
Let’s go to the lecture, shall we?
Open that door, will you?
NOTE
if-clause main clause
if + Present Simple
• Future will
• Modal Verbs (may, might,
can, must, should)
• Imperative
TIME EXPRESSIONS
for, since, how long, all day/week, etc.
When the if- clause comes before the main clause,
the two clauses are separated by a comma.
NOTE
To express agreement
• We use subject + affirmative auxiliary verb when we
disagree with a negative statement, but we don’t want to
repeat it.
A: I can’t play football.
B: I can.
• We use subject + negative auxiliary verb when we
disagree with an affirmative statement, but we don’t
want to repeat it.
A: I’ve been to Madrid twice.
B: I haven’t.
To express disagreement
133
SUBJECT OBJECT
Exclamatory Sentences
Formation
• how/so + adjective/adverb
• what/such + (a/an) + (adjective) + noun
We use Exclamatory Sentences to give emphasis to the
meaning of the adjective/adverb or noun.
How wonderful!
What a beautiful day!
It was so funny!
He’s such an unusual man!
We use Clauses of Result to express the result of an
action or a conclusion:
• so + adjective/adverb + (that)
He was so bored (that) he left before the end of the lecture.
• such + (a/an) + (adjective) + noun + (that)
It was such a hot day that we all went swimming.
Clauses of Result
We use reflexive pronouns:
• as objects of verbs when the subject and the object
of the verb are the same.
I bought myself an expensive pair of shoes.
• as objects of prepositions when the object of the
preposition is the same as the subject of the verb.
He never talks about himself.
Reflexive Pronouns
I
you
he
she
it
we
you
they
me
you
him
her
it
us
you
them
myself
yourself
himself
herself
itself
ourselves
yourselves
themselves
REFLEXIVE
PRONOUNS
PERSONAL PRONOUNS
We use by + reflexive pronoun to show that
someone does something alone, without any help
from anyone else.
I always pack my suitcases by myself.
NOTE
We use the Past Perfect Simple for an action which took
place before a specific point in time or another action in the
past. The second action is in the Past Simple.
Questions
Had worked/written?
I
he/she/it
we/you/they
He had already called me before he left the house.
She had finished her homework by 8 o’clock.
The train had left by the time we arrived at the station.
• We use say when there is no indirect object.
‘I’ll be there,’ he said.
He said that he would be there.
• We use tell when there is an indirect object.
‘I’ll call you, Mark,’ he said.
He told Mark he would call him.
NOTE
Reported Speech (Statements)
In Direct Speech, we repeat the exact words that
someone said. We usually use the verb say and the words
of the speaker are put in quotation marks.
Ian said, ‘Tony is on the phone.’
In Reported Speech, we report the meaning of what
someone said, without using their exact words. We use a
reporting verb, usually say or tell, followed by that
(which can be omitted) and the reported statement.
Ian said that Tony was on the phone.
• When we change a sentence from Direct to Reported
Speech, pronouns and possessive adjectives change
according to the meaning of the sentence.
‘You have to take your son to the doctor,’ said David.
David said that I had to take my son to the doctor.
• We say so + much/many, but such + a lot of.
• That can be omitted, especially in spoken English.
NOTE
NOTE Irregular verbs on page 135.
TIME EXPRESSIONS
already, ever, never, just, by, before, after, when,
by the time
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