Grammar Reference
Passive Voice I
Use
We use the Passive Voice to emphasise an action rather
than who or what is responsible for it.
Formation
The Passive Voice is formed with the verb be + the past
participle of the main verb.
The person who causes or carries out the action is
called an agent and, if mentioned, is preceded by
the preposition by.
We usually omit the agent:
• when the action interests us more than the agent.
• when we don’t know the agent.
• when it is easy to figure out who the agent is.
The bank was robbed! (by someone who we do not know)
English is spoken in Australia. (by people)
NOTE
Verb forms Active Voice Passive Voice
Verb forms in the Passive Voice
Present Simple They always serve
tea with cakes.
Tea is always served
with cakes (by them).
Past Simple I repaired the roof
last year.
The roof was repaired
(by me) last year.
Present Perfect
Simple
We have removed
all the furniture
from the living
room.
All the furniture has
been removed from
the living room.
Past Perfect
Simple
The fire had
destroyed the
house before
the fire brigade
arrived.
The house had been
destroyed by the fire
before the fire brigade
arrived.
Future ‘will’ Mark will pay the
bill tomorrow.
The bill will be paid
(by Mark) tomorrow.
going to They are going to
publish his new
novel next month.
His new novel is
going to be published
next month.
Future Perfect
Simple
I will have posted
all the letters by
noon.
All the letters will
have been posted by
noon.
Present
Infinitive
We need to finish
this work by
tomorrow.
This work needs to be
finished by tomorrow.
Perfect Infinitive He could have
bought the tickets
earlier.
The tickets could
have been bought
earlier.
Modal Verbs You must take him
to hospital.
He must be taken to
hospital.
• We form the Progressive tenses in the Passive Voice
with the appropriate form of the verb be + being + the
past participle of the main verb.
• Verbs such as know, believe, say, think, etc. are often
followed by a that-clause in the Active Voice and can be
used to make general statements.
The Passive Voice can be formed in two ways:
It + passive form of verb + that-clause
or
subject + passive form of verb + to + base form
People believe that he is very rich.
It is believed that he is very rich.
He is believed to be very rich.
They say that the locals built this bridge last year.
It is said that this bridge was built by the locals last year.
This bridge is said to have been built by the locals last year.
• In the Passive Voice we often omit the relative pronoun
+ verb be.
This photograph, which my brother took, won first prize in
the competition. This photograph, (which was) taken by
my brother, won first prize in the competition.
• Verbs of perception (see, hear, watch, smell, feel, notice)
are followed by a bare infinitive or an -ing form in the
Active Voice, but in the Passive Voice they are followed
by a full infinitive or an -ing form.
We saw Dan enter the bank. Dan was seen to enter
the bank.
They heard a boy calling for help. A boy was heard
calling for help.
• The verb make is followed by a bare infinitive in the
Active Voice, but in the Passive Voice it is followed by a
full infinitive.
My mum made me eat all my soup. I was made to
eat all my soup.
• The verb let + bare infinitive changes to be allowed + full
infinitive in the Passive Voice.
They didn’t let me go out. I was not allowed
to go out.
• When a verb (give, offer, send, etc.) takes two objects
in the Active Voice, there are two ways of forming the
Passive Voice.
They gave William a present. William was given a
present.
A present was given
to William
Passive Voice II
Verb forms Active Voice Passive Voice
Verb forms in the Passive Voice
Present
Progressive
They are renovating
the hotel.
The hotel is being
renovated.
Past Progressive The campers were
pitching the tents
when it started to
rain.
The tents were
being pitched by the
campers when it
started to rain.
-ing form I hate people staring
at me.
I hate being stared at.
to + have been +
past participle
}
106
Causative form
The causative form is used when we do not do something
ourselves, but we arrange for somebody else (usually an
expert) to do it for us. It is also used to express an accident
or misfortune that happened to us.
We painted the house last month. (We did it ourselves.)
We had the house painted last month. (A painter did it.)
The causative form is formed as follows:
subject + have / get + object + past participle
• The interrogative and negative forms of the Present
Simple and the Past Simple are formed with the
auxiliaries do/does and did.
How often do you have your hair cut?
Saleh didn’t have his hair cut yesterday.
• In informal language we can use get instead of have.
I must get the TV set repaired.
• If we want to mention who performs the action, we can
add by + agent at the end of the sentence.
She always has her hair dyed by a hairdresser.
• have someone do something = make someone do
something
get someone to do something = persuade someone to
do something
NOTE
Present Simple I have my car fixed.
Present Progressive I’m having my car fixed.
Past Simple I had my car fixed.
Past Progressive I was having my car fixed.
Future will I’ll have my car fixed.
Present Perfect Simple I’ve had my car fixed.
Past Perfect Simple I had had my car fixed.
Modal Verbs I must have my car fixed.
Future going to I’m going to have my car fixed.
Imperative Have my car fixed.
Present Infinitive I managed to have my car fixed.
-ing form I remember having my car fixed.
Clauses of Purpose, Result and Concession
Structures Use Examples
Clauses of Purpose
to + base form I just called to invite
you to my house.
so as (not) to +
base form
in order (not) to
+ base form
The subject of
the verb and the
infinitive is always
the same.
He walked in quietly
so as not to wake up
his parents.
We are saving money
in order to buy a new
car.
for + -ing form
to express the
purpose or
function of an item
I use the electric knife
for cutting meat.
so that + subject
+ can/may/will
so that + subject
+ could/might/
would
purpose with
present or future
time reference
purpose with past
time reference
Please close the door so
that the cat can’t
come in.
He walked quietly so
that nobody could hear
his footsteps.
in case + present
tense
in case + past
tense
purpose with
present or future
time reference
purpose with past
time reference
I’ll take an umbrella
in case it rains.
He gave me his
telephone number in
case I wanted to call
him.
Clauses of Result
We use Clauses of Result to express the result of an action
or a conclusion.
• so + adjective/adverb + that
That Maths problem was so difficult that I couldn't
solve it.
They shouted so loudly that everybody heard them.
• so + much/many/little/few + noun + that
I've read this poem so many times that I know it by
heart now.
• such + a/an + (adjective) + singular countable noun
+ that
It was such a beautiful day that we decided to go for a
picnic.
• such + (adjective) + uncountable / plural countable
noun + that
He was wearing such strange clothes that everyone was
looking at him.
• such + a lot of + noun + that
I’ve put on such a lot of weight that I don’t fit into my
clothes any more.
• too + adjective or adverb (+ for somebody) + full
infinitive
This dress is too expensive for me to buy.
• (not) adjective or adverb + enough (+ for somebody) +
full infinitive
This dress isn’t big enough for me to wear.
• That can be omitted, especially in spoken
English.
NOTE
Clauses of Concession
We use Clauses of Concession to express contrast or
opposition to the main clause.
• although / even though/ though + subject + verb
Although/Even though/ Though he was starving, he didn’t
take any of the food they offered him.
• in spite of / despite + noun / -ing form / what...
Despite the heavy rain, it was very hot.
In spite of feeling afraid, Jim went on the roller coaster.
Despite what you may think, that’s not the case.
• in spite of / despite + the fact + that-clause
He went jogging in spite of/despite the fact that he had a
terrible headache.
• Though is used in spoken English and it can
be placed at the beginning or at the end of the
sentence.
NOTE
Clauses of Purpose
107
today, tonight Ô that day, that night
Tom said, ‘We’re meeting Tim today.’
Tom said they were meeting Tim that day.
yesterday Ô the previous day / the day before
Danny said, ‘I visited my lawyer yesterday.’
Danny said he had visited his lawyer the previous day.
this morning/year, etc. Ô that morning/year, etc.
Mark said, ‘I haven’t eaten anything since this morning.’
Mark said he hadn’t eaten anything since that morning.
here Ô there
Eric said, ‘I saw it here.’
Eric said he had seen it there.
tomorrow Ô the next day / the following day
Fred said, ‘I’m flying to Paris tomorrow.’
Fred said he was flying to Paris the following day.
ago Ô before
Bill said, ‘I bought this car two days ago.’
Bill said he had bought that car two days before.
last week/month, etc. Ô the previous week/month, etc.
the week/month, etc. before
Dave said, ‘I called Mr Miles last week.’
Dave said that he had called Mr Miles the previous week.
next week / month, etc. Ô the following week/ month, etc.
Gary said, ‘I’ll return the book next week.’
Gary said he would return the book the following week.
Module 2 - Unit 3
Reported Speech (Statements)
In Direct Speech, we repeat the exact words that someone
said. We usually use the verb say and the words of the
speaker are put in quotation marks.
Irina said, ‘Tina is on the phone.’
In Reported Speech, we report the meaning of what
someone said, without using their exact words. We use a
reporting verb, usually say or tell, followed by that
(which can be omitted) and the reported statement.
Irina said that Tina was on the phone.
• We use say when there is no indirect object.
‘I can’t fix the car,’ he said.
He said that he couldn’t fix the car.
• We use tell when there is an indirect object.
‘I’ll be late, Tom,’ Dad said.
Dad told Tom he would be late.
NOTE
• When we change a sentence from Direct to Reported
Speech, pronouns and possessive adjectives change
according to the meaning of the sentence.
‘I like your new bike,’ said Ian.
Ian said that he liked my new bike.
• When a sentence changes from Direct to Reported
Speech, tenses, modals and time expressions change as
follows:
Present Simple Ô Past Simple
Kevin said, ‘I want to buy a new car.’
Kevin said (that) he wanted to buy a new car.
Present Progressive Ô Past Progressive
Alan said, ‘I’m having a shower.’
Alan said he was having a shower.
Past Simple Ô Past Perfect Simple
Lars said, ‘I saw a bear behind the tree.’
Lars said he had seen a bear behind the tree.
Present Perfect Simple Ô Past Perfect Simple
Tim said, ‘I’ve read this book.’
Tim said he had read that book.
Present Perfect Progressive Ô Past Perfect Progressive
Andy said, ‘I’ve been waiting for an hour.’
Andy said he had been waiting for an hour.
will Ô would
Dan said, ‘I’ll call you later.’
Dan said he would call me later.
can Ô could
Mina said, ‘I can show you the way.’
Mina said she could show me the way.
Conditional Sentences Type 1 Ô Conditional
Sentences Type 2
Diane said, ‘If we take a taxi, we’ll get there sooner.’
Diane said if they took a taxi, they would get there sooner.
may Ô might
Paul said, ‘I may go to Brazil.’
Paul said he might go to Brazil.
must Ô had to
Jim said, ‘You must work hard.’
Jim said I had to work hard.
now Ô then
Fadi said, ‘I’ll talk to him now!’
Fadi said he would talk to him then.
• These changes cannot be made when the sentence
expresses a general truth or the reporting verb is in
the Present, Future or Present Perfect Simple.
‘I enjoy cooking,’ Tom said.
Tom said (that) he enjoys cooking.
‘I will move to Dublin next year,’ Eric says.
Eric says he will move to Dublin next year.
• The Past Perfect and the verbs could, might, should,
would, ought to, mustn’t and used to do not change in
Reported Speech.
• The Past Progressive usually doesn’t change but
when it does, it changes to Past Perfect Progressive.
Past tenses in time clauses do not change.
‘I was speaking on the phone when the doorbell
rang,’ she said. She said (that) she was speaking
on the phone when the doorbell rang.
• Conditional Sentences Types 2 and 3 and sentences
with wish/ if only do not change in Reported Speech.
NOTE
Reported Commands and Requests
• We commonly use tell, beg, command, advise, warn
or order when we report commands and ask when we report
requests.
• The Imperative changes to full infinitive or not + full infinitive.
‘Be quiet, children,’ said Ahmed. Ô Ahmed told the children
to be quiet.
‘Don’t tell anyone, please,’ Laura said. Ô Laura asked me
not to tell anyone.
• When the request is in question form, in Reported
Speech it changes to full infinitive.
‘Will you open the door, please?’ Vicky said.
Vicky asked me to open the door.
NOTE
Special Introductory Verbs
There are a number of special introductory verbs used in
Reported Speech.
• verb + full infinitive (agree, claim, demand, offer,
promise, refuse, threaten, etc.)
‘I’ll babysit for you,’ said Patty.
Patty offered to babysit for me.
108
Words and expressions Examples
• verb + object + full infinitive (advise, allow, ask, beg,
encourage, forbid, invite, order, permit, remind, warn, etc.)
‘You should take better care of yourself, Ivana,’ said Sally.
Sally advised Ivana to take better care of herself.
• verb + -ing form (accuse sb of, apologise for, admit
(to), complain to sb about, deny, insist on, suggest, etc.)
‘George lied to me,’ said Mark.
Mark accused George of lying to him.
• verb + that clause (admit, agree, claim, complain,
exclaim, explain, inform sb, promise, suggest, etc.)
‘You never listen to me,’ he said.
He complained that I never listened to him.
Reported Questions
• We usually introduce reported questions with the
reporting verbs ask, wonder and the expression want to
know.
• The verbs in reported questions are in the affirmative
form.
‘Why did you go to the doctor?’ he asked.
He asked me why I had gone to the doctor.
• If the direct question begins with a question word, the
reported question also begins with the same question word.
‘Where are you going?’ he asked.
He asked me where I was going.
• If the direct question does not begin with a question
word, the reported question begins with if or whether.
‘Did you enjoy the presentation?’ he asked.
He asked me if/whether I had enjoyed the presentation.
• When we change questions from Direct to Reported
Speech, pronouns, tenses, adverbs, etc. change in the
same way as in reported statements.
Inversion
When some words or expressions (usually with a
negative or a restrictive meaning) are at the beginning
of a sentence, the sentence is formed like a question
(the auxiliary is placed before the subject). This is called
inversion and is used for emphasis.
Never (before)
Rarely
Seldom
Hardly (ever)...when
No sooner... than
Only
Not only... but also
Not (even) once
Not until
On no account
Under no circumstances
By no means
In no way
Nowhere
Little
Never in my life had I felt so
embarrassed.
Rarely does he use his credit
card.
No sooner had I told him the
news than everybody in the
village knew it!
Only when you see her will
you realise how much she
has changed.
Only in an emergency should
you dial 999.
Not only did I lock the
door, but I also secured the
windows.
Not even once did he look in
this direction.
Not until I saw him in
person, did I realise how tall
he was.
In no way is he to blame for
what happened.
Under no circumstances
would he accept my proposal.
Little did he know that a
surprise awaited him.
Present or Future Reference:
Sometimes we use the Past Simple when referring to the
present or future. This is called the Unreal Past.
• We use wish / if only + Past Simple to make a wish
about a present or future situation which we would like
to be different.
I wish you didn’t have to go tomorrow. (= But you have to).
I wish I had a bigger house. (= But I don’t).
• We use wish / if only + could + bare infinitive to
express regret about something we cannot do at
present.
I wish I could speak Italian.
I wish I could come with you on Friday.
• We use wish/ if only + would + bare infinitive to
express annoyance, irritation, dissatisfaction, and to
make a wish concerning a present situation that is
unlikely to change. (The subject of would must be
different from that of wish).
I wish / If only you would stop shouting!
I wish the days would go by more quickly!
• We use would rather + Past Simple to say that we
would prefer somebody to do or not do something.
(The subject of would rather must be different from the
subject of the main verb).
I’d rather you didn’t use my phone.
• We use it’s (high/ about) time + Past Simple to express
criticism or complain about something that should
have already been done.
It’s time you went to bed.
Unreal Past
Past Reference:
• We use wish / if only + Past Perfect Simple to express
regret about something that happened or didn’t happen
in the past.
I wish I had taken a torch with me. I can’t see a thing.
• We use would rather / as if / as though + Past Perfect
Simple for unreal situations in the past.
I’d rather you had informed me earlier.
He talked to us as if he had known us for years.
• In the Unreal Past we usually use were instead of
was.
NOTE
• We use as if / as though + Past Simple for untrue
situations.
He speaks as if he were an expert. (He is not.)
109
The Present Simple is used:
• to describe permanent situations or states.
Tom lives in London.
• to describe repeated/habitual actions.
He wakes up at 7:30 every morning.
• to talk about general truths.
Water boils at 100°C.
• to talk about future actions related to timetables and
programmes.
Our plane leaves at 10:00 tomorrow.
• to refer to the plot of a book, etc.
Harry lives with his uncle Vernon.
• in sport commentaries.
Jefferson shoots and he scores!
• in exclamatory sentences with Here… and There…
Here comes Uncle Harry!
• in declarations.
We regret to inform you that your application has been
rejected.
• in newspaper headlines.
Police arrest burglar red-handed.
• in instructions.
First, you cut the tomatoes and add them to the mixture.
The Present Progressive is used:
• to describe actions happening now.
Robert is talking to his boss right now.
• to describe temporary situations.
I’m staying with my aunt at the moment.
• to talk about annoying actions which happen repeatedly (with
the adverbs of frequency always, constantly, continually).
You’re always interrupting me!
• to describe situations which are changing or developing
around the present time.
Air pollution is increasing in our city.
• to talk about future arrangements.
I’m visiting some friends at the weekend.
The following verbs are not normally used in progressive
tenses:
• Verbs of the senses: feel, hear, smell, taste, notice, see, etc.
• Verbs of emotions: like, love, hate, dislike, want, need,
prefer, fear, wish, admire, mind, etc.
• Verbs of perception and opinion: know, agree, think
(= believe), believe, understand, remember, forget, hope,
expect, mean, imagine, etc.
• verbs of ownership: have, possess, belong, own, etc.
• other verbs which describe permanent states: be, cost,
seem, appear, weigh, consist, etc.
Certain stative verbs can be used in progressive tenses
when they express actions rather than states but with a
difference in meaning:
• think (= consider)
I’m thinking of buying a car.
• see (= meet, visit)
She’s seeing her sister tonight.
• have (= drink, eat, take)
Glenn is having lunch at the cafeteria at the moment.
• taste (= try food)
I’m just tasting the food to see if it’s ready.
• feel (= touch)
John is feeling the packet in order to find out what’s
inside.
NOTE
Passive Voice I
Use
We use the Passive Voice to emphasise an action rather
than who or what is responsible for it.
Formation
The Passive Voice is formed with the verb be + the past
participle of the main verb.
The person who causes or carries out the action is
called an agent and, if mentioned, is preceded by
the preposition by.
We usually omit the agent:
• when the action interests us more than the agent.
• when we don’t know the agent.
• when it is easy to figure out who the agent is.
The bank was robbed! (by someone who we do not know)
English is spoken in Australia. (by people)
NOTE
Verb forms Active Voice Passive Voice
Verb forms in the Passive Voice
Present Simple They always serve
tea with cakes.
Tea is always served
with cakes (by them).
Past Simple I repaired the roof
last year.
The roof was repaired
(by me) last year.
Present Perfect
Simple
We have removed
all the furniture
from the living
room.
All the furniture has
been removed from
the living room.
Past Perfect
Simple
The fire had
destroyed the
house before
the fire brigade
arrived.
The house had been
destroyed by the fire
before the fire brigade
arrived.
Future ‘will’ Mark will pay the
bill tomorrow.
The bill will be paid
(by Mark) tomorrow.
going to They are going to
publish his new
novel next month.
His new novel is
going to be published
next month.
Future Perfect
Simple
I will have posted
all the letters by
noon.
All the letters will
have been posted by
noon.
Present
Infinitive
We need to finish
this work by
tomorrow.
This work needs to be
finished by tomorrow.
Perfect Infinitive He could have
bought the tickets
earlier.
The tickets could
have been bought
earlier.
Modal Verbs You must take him
to hospital.
He must be taken to
hospital.
• We form the Progressive tenses in the Passive Voice
with the appropriate form of the verb be + being + the
past participle of the main verb.
• Verbs such as know, believe, say, think, etc. are often
followed by a that-clause in the Active Voice and can be
used to make general statements.
The Passive Voice can be formed in two ways:
It + passive form of verb + that-clause
or
subject + passive form of verb + to + base form
People believe that he is very rich.
It is believed that he is very rich.
He is believed to be very rich.
They say that the locals built this bridge last year.
It is said that this bridge was built by the locals last year.
This bridge is said to have been built by the locals last year.
• In the Passive Voice we often omit the relative pronoun
+ verb be.
This photograph, which my brother took, won first prize in
the competition. This photograph, (which was) taken by
my brother, won first prize in the competition.
• Verbs of perception (see, hear, watch, smell, feel, notice)
are followed by a bare infinitive or an -ing form in the
Active Voice, but in the Passive Voice they are followed
by a full infinitive or an -ing form.
We saw Dan enter the bank. Dan was seen to enter
the bank.
They heard a boy calling for help. A boy was heard
calling for help.
• The verb make is followed by a bare infinitive in the
Active Voice, but in the Passive Voice it is followed by a
full infinitive.
My mum made me eat all my soup. I was made to
eat all my soup.
• The verb let + bare infinitive changes to be allowed + full
infinitive in the Passive Voice.
They didn’t let me go out. I was not allowed
to go out.
• When a verb (give, offer, send, etc.) takes two objects
in the Active Voice, there are two ways of forming the
Passive Voice.
They gave William a present. William was given a
present.
A present was given
to William
Passive Voice II
Verb forms Active Voice Passive Voice
Verb forms in the Passive Voice
Present
Progressive
They are renovating
the hotel.
The hotel is being
renovated.
Past Progressive The campers were
pitching the tents
when it started to
rain.
The tents were
being pitched by the
campers when it
started to rain.
-ing form I hate people staring
at me.
I hate being stared at.
to + have been +
past participle
}
106
Causative form
The causative form is used when we do not do something
ourselves, but we arrange for somebody else (usually an
expert) to do it for us. It is also used to express an accident
or misfortune that happened to us.
We painted the house last month. (We did it ourselves.)
We had the house painted last month. (A painter did it.)
The causative form is formed as follows:
subject + have / get + object + past participle
• The interrogative and negative forms of the Present
Simple and the Past Simple are formed with the
auxiliaries do/does and did.
How often do you have your hair cut?
Saleh didn’t have his hair cut yesterday.
• In informal language we can use get instead of have.
I must get the TV set repaired.
• If we want to mention who performs the action, we can
add by + agent at the end of the sentence.
She always has her hair dyed by a hairdresser.
• have someone do something = make someone do
something
get someone to do something = persuade someone to
do something
NOTE
Present Simple I have my car fixed.
Present Progressive I’m having my car fixed.
Past Simple I had my car fixed.
Past Progressive I was having my car fixed.
Future will I’ll have my car fixed.
Present Perfect Simple I’ve had my car fixed.
Past Perfect Simple I had had my car fixed.
Modal Verbs I must have my car fixed.
Future going to I’m going to have my car fixed.
Imperative Have my car fixed.
Present Infinitive I managed to have my car fixed.
-ing form I remember having my car fixed.
Clauses of Purpose, Result and Concession
Structures Use Examples
Clauses of Purpose
to + base form I just called to invite
you to my house.
so as (not) to +
base form
in order (not) to
+ base form
The subject of
the verb and the
infinitive is always
the same.
He walked in quietly
so as not to wake up
his parents.
We are saving money
in order to buy a new
car.
for + -ing form
to express the
purpose or
function of an item
I use the electric knife
for cutting meat.
so that + subject
+ can/may/will
so that + subject
+ could/might/
would
purpose with
present or future
time reference
purpose with past
time reference
Please close the door so
that the cat can’t
come in.
He walked quietly so
that nobody could hear
his footsteps.
in case + present
tense
in case + past
tense
purpose with
present or future
time reference
purpose with past
time reference
I’ll take an umbrella
in case it rains.
He gave me his
telephone number in
case I wanted to call
him.
Clauses of Result
We use Clauses of Result to express the result of an action
or a conclusion.
• so + adjective/adverb + that
That Maths problem was so difficult that I couldn't
solve it.
They shouted so loudly that everybody heard them.
• so + much/many/little/few + noun + that
I've read this poem so many times that I know it by
heart now.
• such + a/an + (adjective) + singular countable noun
+ that
It was such a beautiful day that we decided to go for a
picnic.
• such + (adjective) + uncountable / plural countable
noun + that
He was wearing such strange clothes that everyone was
looking at him.
• such + a lot of + noun + that
I’ve put on such a lot of weight that I don’t fit into my
clothes any more.
• too + adjective or adverb (+ for somebody) + full
infinitive
This dress is too expensive for me to buy.
• (not) adjective or adverb + enough (+ for somebody) +
full infinitive
This dress isn’t big enough for me to wear.
• That can be omitted, especially in spoken
English.
NOTE
Clauses of Concession
We use Clauses of Concession to express contrast or
opposition to the main clause.
• although / even though/ though + subject + verb
Although/Even though/ Though he was starving, he didn’t
take any of the food they offered him.
• in spite of / despite + noun / -ing form / what...
Despite the heavy rain, it was very hot.
In spite of feeling afraid, Jim went on the roller coaster.
Despite what you may think, that’s not the case.
• in spite of / despite + the fact + that-clause
He went jogging in spite of/despite the fact that he had a
terrible headache.
• Though is used in spoken English and it can
be placed at the beginning or at the end of the
sentence.
NOTE
Clauses of Purpose
107
today, tonight Ô that day, that night
Tom said, ‘We’re meeting Tim today.’
Tom said they were meeting Tim that day.
yesterday Ô the previous day / the day before
Danny said, ‘I visited my lawyer yesterday.’
Danny said he had visited his lawyer the previous day.
this morning/year, etc. Ô that morning/year, etc.
Mark said, ‘I haven’t eaten anything since this morning.’
Mark said he hadn’t eaten anything since that morning.
here Ô there
Eric said, ‘I saw it here.’
Eric said he had seen it there.
tomorrow Ô the next day / the following day
Fred said, ‘I’m flying to Paris tomorrow.’
Fred said he was flying to Paris the following day.
ago Ô before
Bill said, ‘I bought this car two days ago.’
Bill said he had bought that car two days before.
last week/month, etc. Ô the previous week/month, etc.
the week/month, etc. before
Dave said, ‘I called Mr Miles last week.’
Dave said that he had called Mr Miles the previous week.
next week / month, etc. Ô the following week/ month, etc.
Gary said, ‘I’ll return the book next week.’
Gary said he would return the book the following week.
Module 2 - Unit 3
Reported Speech (Statements)
In Direct Speech, we repeat the exact words that someone
said. We usually use the verb say and the words of the
speaker are put in quotation marks.
Irina said, ‘Tina is on the phone.’
In Reported Speech, we report the meaning of what
someone said, without using their exact words. We use a
reporting verb, usually say or tell, followed by that
(which can be omitted) and the reported statement.
Irina said that Tina was on the phone.
• We use say when there is no indirect object.
‘I can’t fix the car,’ he said.
He said that he couldn’t fix the car.
• We use tell when there is an indirect object.
‘I’ll be late, Tom,’ Dad said.
Dad told Tom he would be late.
NOTE
• When we change a sentence from Direct to Reported
Speech, pronouns and possessive adjectives change
according to the meaning of the sentence.
‘I like your new bike,’ said Ian.
Ian said that he liked my new bike.
• When a sentence changes from Direct to Reported
Speech, tenses, modals and time expressions change as
follows:
Present Simple Ô Past Simple
Kevin said, ‘I want to buy a new car.’
Kevin said (that) he wanted to buy a new car.
Present Progressive Ô Past Progressive
Alan said, ‘I’m having a shower.’
Alan said he was having a shower.
Past Simple Ô Past Perfect Simple
Lars said, ‘I saw a bear behind the tree.’
Lars said he had seen a bear behind the tree.
Present Perfect Simple Ô Past Perfect Simple
Tim said, ‘I’ve read this book.’
Tim said he had read that book.
Present Perfect Progressive Ô Past Perfect Progressive
Andy said, ‘I’ve been waiting for an hour.’
Andy said he had been waiting for an hour.
will Ô would
Dan said, ‘I’ll call you later.’
Dan said he would call me later.
can Ô could
Mina said, ‘I can show you the way.’
Mina said she could show me the way.
Conditional Sentences Type 1 Ô Conditional
Sentences Type 2
Diane said, ‘If we take a taxi, we’ll get there sooner.’
Diane said if they took a taxi, they would get there sooner.
may Ô might
Paul said, ‘I may go to Brazil.’
Paul said he might go to Brazil.
must Ô had to
Jim said, ‘You must work hard.’
Jim said I had to work hard.
now Ô then
Fadi said, ‘I’ll talk to him now!’
Fadi said he would talk to him then.
• These changes cannot be made when the sentence
expresses a general truth or the reporting verb is in
the Present, Future or Present Perfect Simple.
‘I enjoy cooking,’ Tom said.
Tom said (that) he enjoys cooking.
‘I will move to Dublin next year,’ Eric says.
Eric says he will move to Dublin next year.
• The Past Perfect and the verbs could, might, should,
would, ought to, mustn’t and used to do not change in
Reported Speech.
• The Past Progressive usually doesn’t change but
when it does, it changes to Past Perfect Progressive.
Past tenses in time clauses do not change.
‘I was speaking on the phone when the doorbell
rang,’ she said. She said (that) she was speaking
on the phone when the doorbell rang.
• Conditional Sentences Types 2 and 3 and sentences
with wish/ if only do not change in Reported Speech.
NOTE
Reported Commands and Requests
• We commonly use tell, beg, command, advise, warn
or order when we report commands and ask when we report
requests.
• The Imperative changes to full infinitive or not + full infinitive.
‘Be quiet, children,’ said Ahmed. Ô Ahmed told the children
to be quiet.
‘Don’t tell anyone, please,’ Laura said. Ô Laura asked me
not to tell anyone.
• When the request is in question form, in Reported
Speech it changes to full infinitive.
‘Will you open the door, please?’ Vicky said.
Vicky asked me to open the door.
NOTE
Special Introductory Verbs
There are a number of special introductory verbs used in
Reported Speech.
• verb + full infinitive (agree, claim, demand, offer,
promise, refuse, threaten, etc.)
‘I’ll babysit for you,’ said Patty.
Patty offered to babysit for me.
108
Words and expressions Examples
• verb + object + full infinitive (advise, allow, ask, beg,
encourage, forbid, invite, order, permit, remind, warn, etc.)
‘You should take better care of yourself, Ivana,’ said Sally.
Sally advised Ivana to take better care of herself.
• verb + -ing form (accuse sb of, apologise for, admit
(to), complain to sb about, deny, insist on, suggest, etc.)
‘George lied to me,’ said Mark.
Mark accused George of lying to him.
• verb + that clause (admit, agree, claim, complain,
exclaim, explain, inform sb, promise, suggest, etc.)
‘You never listen to me,’ he said.
He complained that I never listened to him.
Reported Questions
• We usually introduce reported questions with the
reporting verbs ask, wonder and the expression want to
know.
• The verbs in reported questions are in the affirmative
form.
‘Why did you go to the doctor?’ he asked.
He asked me why I had gone to the doctor.
• If the direct question begins with a question word, the
reported question also begins with the same question word.
‘Where are you going?’ he asked.
He asked me where I was going.
• If the direct question does not begin with a question
word, the reported question begins with if or whether.
‘Did you enjoy the presentation?’ he asked.
He asked me if/whether I had enjoyed the presentation.
• When we change questions from Direct to Reported
Speech, pronouns, tenses, adverbs, etc. change in the
same way as in reported statements.
Inversion
When some words or expressions (usually with a
negative or a restrictive meaning) are at the beginning
of a sentence, the sentence is formed like a question
(the auxiliary is placed before the subject). This is called
inversion and is used for emphasis.
Never (before)
Rarely
Seldom
Hardly (ever)...when
No sooner... than
Only
Not only... but also
Not (even) once
Not until
On no account
Under no circumstances
By no means
In no way
Nowhere
Little
Never in my life had I felt so
embarrassed.
Rarely does he use his credit
card.
No sooner had I told him the
news than everybody in the
village knew it!
Only when you see her will
you realise how much she
has changed.
Only in an emergency should
you dial 999.
Not only did I lock the
door, but I also secured the
windows.
Not even once did he look in
this direction.
Not until I saw him in
person, did I realise how tall
he was.
In no way is he to blame for
what happened.
Under no circumstances
would he accept my proposal.
Little did he know that a
surprise awaited him.
Present or Future Reference:
Sometimes we use the Past Simple when referring to the
present or future. This is called the Unreal Past.
• We use wish / if only + Past Simple to make a wish
about a present or future situation which we would like
to be different.
I wish you didn’t have to go tomorrow. (= But you have to).
I wish I had a bigger house. (= But I don’t).
• We use wish / if only + could + bare infinitive to
express regret about something we cannot do at
present.
I wish I could speak Italian.
I wish I could come with you on Friday.
• We use wish/ if only + would + bare infinitive to
express annoyance, irritation, dissatisfaction, and to
make a wish concerning a present situation that is
unlikely to change. (The subject of would must be
different from that of wish).
I wish / If only you would stop shouting!
I wish the days would go by more quickly!
• We use would rather + Past Simple to say that we
would prefer somebody to do or not do something.
(The subject of would rather must be different from the
subject of the main verb).
I’d rather you didn’t use my phone.
• We use it’s (high/ about) time + Past Simple to express
criticism or complain about something that should
have already been done.
It’s time you went to bed.
Unreal Past
Past Reference:
• We use wish / if only + Past Perfect Simple to express
regret about something that happened or didn’t happen
in the past.
I wish I had taken a torch with me. I can’t see a thing.
• We use would rather / as if / as though + Past Perfect
Simple for unreal situations in the past.
I’d rather you had informed me earlier.
He talked to us as if he had known us for years.
• In the Unreal Past we usually use were instead of
was.
NOTE
• We use as if / as though + Past Simple for untrue
situations.
He speaks as if he were an expert. (He is not.)
109
The Present Simple is used:
• to describe permanent situations or states.
Tom lives in London.
• to describe repeated/habitual actions.
He wakes up at 7:30 every morning.
• to talk about general truths.
Water boils at 100°C.
• to talk about future actions related to timetables and
programmes.
Our plane leaves at 10:00 tomorrow.
• to refer to the plot of a book, etc.
Harry lives with his uncle Vernon.
• in sport commentaries.
Jefferson shoots and he scores!
• in exclamatory sentences with Here… and There…
Here comes Uncle Harry!
• in declarations.
We regret to inform you that your application has been
rejected.
• in newspaper headlines.
Police arrest burglar red-handed.
• in instructions.
First, you cut the tomatoes and add them to the mixture.
The Present Progressive is used:
• to describe actions happening now.
Robert is talking to his boss right now.
• to describe temporary situations.
I’m staying with my aunt at the moment.
• to talk about annoying actions which happen repeatedly (with
the adverbs of frequency always, constantly, continually).
You’re always interrupting me!
• to describe situations which are changing or developing
around the present time.
Air pollution is increasing in our city.
• to talk about future arrangements.
I’m visiting some friends at the weekend.
The following verbs are not normally used in progressive
tenses:
• Verbs of the senses: feel, hear, smell, taste, notice, see, etc.
• Verbs of emotions: like, love, hate, dislike, want, need,
prefer, fear, wish, admire, mind, etc.
• Verbs of perception and opinion: know, agree, think
(= believe), believe, understand, remember, forget, hope,
expect, mean, imagine, etc.
• verbs of ownership: have, possess, belong, own, etc.
• other verbs which describe permanent states: be, cost,
seem, appear, weigh, consist, etc.
Certain stative verbs can be used in progressive tenses
when they express actions rather than states but with a
difference in meaning:
• think (= consider)
I’m thinking of buying a car.
• see (= meet, visit)
She’s seeing her sister tonight.
• have (= drink, eat, take)
Glenn is having lunch at the cafeteria at the moment.
• taste (= try food)
I’m just tasting the food to see if it’s ready.
• feel (= touch)
John is feeling the packet in order to find out what’s
inside.
NOTE
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